Congenital heart disease: Difference between revisions

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'''Congenital [[heart]] disease''', abbreviated '''CHD''', is a niche area of a niche area.
'''Congenital [[heart]] disease''', abbreviated '''CHD''', is a niche area of [[cardiac pathology]], which is a subset of [[cardiovascular pathology]].


==Paediatric cardiac surgery==
=Paediatric cardiac surgery=
====Norwood procedure====
====Norwood procedure====
Indication:  
Indication:  
*LHHS - following birth.
*[[LHHS]] - following birth.


Details:
Details:
Line 29: Line 29:


Indication:
Indication:
*LHHS - following Norwood procedure, reduce work done by the heart; usu. done at age 4 to 6 months.
*[[LHHS]] - following Norwood procedure, reduce work done by the heart; usu. done at age 4 to 6 months.


Details:
Details:
Line 53: Line 53:
*Fontan procedure cannot be done in a newborn as the pulmonary vascular bed resistance is too high.<ref name=pmid5089489/>
*Fontan procedure cannot be done in a newborn as the pulmonary vascular bed resistance is too high.<ref name=pmid5089489/>


==Shunts - overview==
=Shunts - overview=
Most shunts are a consequence of congenital heart disease, which is dealt with in the [[congenital heart disease]] article.  They are only listed here briefly and grouped into ''left-to-right'' and ''right-to-left''.
Most shunts are a consequence of congenital heart disease.  They can be grouped into ''left-to-right'' and ''right-to-left''.


===Left-to-right===
==Left-to-right==
Mnemonic ''the Ds'':<ref name=Ref_PBoD566>{{Ref PBoD|566}}</ref>
Mnemonic ''the Ds'':<ref name=Ref_PBoD566>{{Ref PBoD|566}}</ref>
*ASD = atrial septal defect.
*ASD = atrial septal defect.
Line 64: Line 64:


Note: The word ''Left'' has four letters and there are four L->R shunts.
Note: The word ''Left'' has four letters and there are four L->R shunts.
===Right-to-left===
==Right-to-left==
Mnemonic ''5 Ts'':<ref name=Ref_PBoD568>{{Ref PBoD|568}}</ref>
Mnemonic ''5 Ts'':<ref name=Ref_PBoD568>{{Ref PBoD|568}}</ref>
*Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF),
*Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF).
*Transposition of great arteries,
*Transposition of great arteries.
*Truncus arteriosus,
*Truncus arteriosus.
*Tricuspid valve atresia,
*Tricuspid valve atresia.
*Total anomalous pulmonary venous return.
*Total anomalous pulmonary venous return.


Clinical: TOF is the classic cause of "blue babies".
Clinical:  
 
*These babies are blue, as the blood partially bypasses the lung and/or oxygenated blood is mixed with de-oxygenated blood.
*TOF is the classic cause of "blue babies".


=Left-to-right=
==Ventricular septal defect==
==Ventricular septal defect==
*Abbreviated ''VSD''.
===General===
*Common serious congenital heart defect.
*Common serious congenital heart defect.
**Most common congenital defect = bicuspid aortic valve.<ref name=pmid20579534>{{cite journal |author=Siu SC, Silversides CK |title=Bicuspid aortic valve disease |journal=J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. |volume=55 |issue=25 |pages=2789–800 |year=2010 |month=June |pmid=20579534 |doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2009.12.068 |url=}}</ref>
**Most common congenital defect = bicuspid aortic valve.<ref name=pmid20579534>{{cite journal |author=Siu SC, Silversides CK |title=Bicuspid aortic valve disease |journal=J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. |volume=55 |issue=25 |pages=2789–800 |year=2010 |month=June |pmid=20579534 |doi=10.1016/j.jacc.2009.12.068 |url=}}</ref>
*Often associated with other cardiac abnormalities, e.g. [[Tetralogy of Fallot]].
**20-30% of VSDs are isolated.<ref name=Ref_PCPBoD8_287>{{Ref PCPBoD8|287}}</ref>
Subtypes:
#Membranous VSD ~ 90%.
#*Near aortic valve.
#Muscular VSD ~ 10%.
Clinical:
*Significance dependent on:
**Size - large ones require an intervention, e.g. surgery.
**Concurrent/associated pathology.


==Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF)==
==Atrial septal defect==
*Abbreviated ''ASD''.
===General===
*May be seen in adults.
*Classically a left-to-right shunt.
**Leads to RV dilation.<ref name=pmid22893692>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Nyboe | first1 = C. | last2 = Fenger-Grøn | first2 = M. | last3 = Nielsen-Kudsk | first3 = JE. | last4 = Hjortdal | first4 = V. | title = Closure of secundum atrial septal defects in the adult and elderly patients. | journal = Eur J Cardiothorac Surg | volume =  | issue =  | pages =  | month = Aug | year = 2012 | doi = 10.1093/ejcts/ezs405 | PMID = 22893692 }}</ref>
 
Clinical:
*Fixed S2 split.
 
===Classification===
Types:<ref name=Ref_PCPBoD8|287>{{Ref PCPBoD8|287}}</ref>
#Ostium secundum
#*Between SVC and IVC.
#Ostium primum
#*Between SVC and IVC. Closer to RV.
#Sinus venosus.
#*May be subdivided into:
#**Upper sinus venosus defect - at SVC.
#**Lower sinus venosus defect - at IVC.
 
Notes:
*The ostium secundum are the most common and usually found in isolation, i.e. there are not other associated abnormalities.
 
==Eisenmenger syndrome==
===General===
Definition - all of the following:<ref name=pmid19416617>{{cite journal |author=Jensen AS, Iversen K, Vejlstrup NG, Hansen PB, Sondergaard L |title=[Eisenmenger syndrome] |language=Danish |journal=Ugeskr. Laeg. |volume=171 |issue=15 |pages=1270-5 |year=2009 |month=April |pmid=19416617 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
#[[Pulmonary arterial hypertension]].
#Right-to-left shunt (that was initially left-to-right).
#Cyanosis.
 
====Causes====
*[[ASD]] - rarely causes Eisenmenger syndrome.
*[[VSD]].
*Extra-cardiac shunt.
 
Note: Eisenmenger syndrome, by definition in some sources, is (only) due to a VSD.
 
===Microscopic===
End-stage disease:<ref name=pmid12140128>{{cite journal |author=Daliento L, Rebellato L, Angelini A, ''et al.'' |title=Fatal outcome in Eisenmenger syndrome |journal=Cardiovasc. Pathol. |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=221-8 |year=2002 |pmid=12140128 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*Often characterized by fibrinoid [[necrosis]] of small pulmonary arterial vessels (arterioles & small arteries).
 
=Right-to-left=
==Tetralogy of Fallot==
*Abbreviated ''TOF''.
===General===
===General===
*Most common cause of a ''blue baby''.
*Most common cause of a ''blue baby''.


===Etiology===
====Etiology====
*Abnormal septation of the truncus arteriosus.
*Abnormal septation of the truncus arteriosus.


===Definition===
====Definition====
Features:<ref name=Ref_PBoD568>{{Ref PBoD|568}}</ref>
Features:<ref name=Ref_PBoD568>{{Ref PBoD|568}}</ref>
*Right ventricular hypertrophy.  
*Right ventricular hypertrophy.  
Line 97: Line 157:
*Right ventricular outflow tract obstruction is usually subpulmonic stenosis.
*Right ventricular outflow tract obstruction is usually subpulmonic stenosis.


==Atrial septal defect==
==Transposition of the great vessels==
*May be seen in adults.
*[[AKA]] ''transposition of the great arteries''.
===General===
*Aorta and pulmonary trunk hooked-up to the wrong ventricle.
**Survivable after birth only if there is a functional shunt, e.g. (persistent) patent ductus arteriosus and/or atrial septal defect.
**When the ''ductus arteriosus'' closes they are in trouble.


===Clinical===
==Total anomalous pulmonary venous return==
*Fixed S2 split.
*[[AKA]] ''total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage'' (TAPVD).
*Abbreviated ''TAPVR''.
===General===
*Pulmonary veins do not attach to left atrium.
*Classified by where the veins attach - which is predictive of outcome.<ref>URL: [http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/899491-overview http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/899491-overview]. Accessed on: 10 March 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Karamlou T, Gurofsky R, Al Sukhni E, ''et al.'' |title=Factors associated with mortality and reoperation in 377 children with total anomalous pulmonary venous connection |journal=Circulation |volume=115 |issue=12 |pages=1591–8 |year=2007 |month=March |pmid=17353446 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.635441 |url=}}</ref>
*Treatment: surgical repair (''Coles procedure'').<ref>URL: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2807798/ http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2807798/]. Accessed on: 15 March 2011.</ref> (???)


===Classification===
=Other=
Types:<ref>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ASD.png http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ASD.png]</ref>
==Ebstein anomaly==
*Ostium secundum (most common) - between SVC and IVC.
===General===
*Ostium primum - between SVC and IVC closer to RV.
*Often right-to-left shunt - as it is seen with an [[atrial septal defect]] (ASD).
*Upper sinus venosus defect - at SVC.
*Tricuspid incompetence -> right atrial enlargement.<ref>URL: [http://www.chop.edu/service/cardiac-center/heart-conditions/ebsteins-anomaly.html http://www.chop.edu/service/cardiac-center/heart-conditions/ebsteins-anomaly.html]. Accessed on: 27 November 2011.</ref>
*Lower sinus venosus defect - at IVC.
*Weak association with maternal lithium use.<ref name=pmid16611133>{{Cite journal  | last1 = Giles | first1 = JJ. | last2 = Bannigan | first2 = JG. | title = Teratogenic and developmental effects of lithium. | journal = Curr Pharm Des | volume = 12 | issue = 12 | pages = 1531-41 | month =  | year = 2006 | doi =  | PMID = 16611133 }}</ref>
*Coronary sinus defect.


The ostium secundum are the most common and usually found in isolation, i.e. there are not other associated abnormalities.
==Left hypoplastic heart syndrome==
*Abbreviated ''LHHS''.


==Left hypoplastic heart syndrome==
===General===
Defintion:<ref>Moore. TDH. P.361</ref>
Defintion:<ref>Moore. TDH. P.361</ref>
*Physiologically inadequate left ventricle.
*Physiologically inadequate left ventricle.


Key characteristic:<ref name=emed_hlhs>[http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/890196-overview http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/890196-overview]</ref>
Key characteristic:<ref name=emed_hlhs>[http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/890196-overview http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/890196-overview]</ref>
*Atrial septal defect (ASD) -- left-to-right shunt.
*[[Atrial septal defect]] (ASD) -- left-to-right shunt.


Causality:
Causality:
Line 125: Line 194:


Associations:<ref name=emed_hlhs/>
Associations:<ref name=emed_hlhs/>
*Turner syndrome.
*[[Turner syndrome]].
*Noonan syndrome - sometimes called "male version of Turner syndrome".
*Noonan syndrome - sometimes called "male version of Turner syndrome".
*Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome.
*Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome.
*Holt-Oram syndrome.<ref name=pmid15505648>{{cite journal |author=Ekure EN, Okoromah CN, Briggs E, Ajenifuja OA |title=Holt-Oram syndrome with hypoplastic left heart syndrome in an African child |journal=Niger Postgrad Med J |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=190–2 |year=2004 |month=September |pmid=15505648 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*Holt-Oram syndrome.<ref name=pmid15505648>{{cite journal |author=Ekure EN, Okoromah CN, Briggs E, Ajenifuja OA |title=Holt-Oram syndrome with hypoplastic left heart syndrome in an African child |journal=Niger Postgrad Med J |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=190–2 |year=2004 |month=September |pmid=15505648 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
==Transposition of great vessels==
*Aorta and pulmonary trunk hooked-up to the wrong ventricle.
**Survivable after birth only if there is a functional shunt, e.g. (persistent) patent ductus arteriosus and/or atrial septal defect.
**When the ''ductus arteriosus'' closes they are in trouble.


==Splenic abnormalities==
==Splenic abnormalities==
{{Main|Spleen}}
Asplenia is associated with cardiac abnormalities:<ref name=pmid1191445>{{cite journal |author=Rose V, Izukawa T, Moes CA |title=Syndromes of asplenia and polysplenia. A review of cardiac and non-cardiac malformations in 60 cases withspecial reference to diagnosis and prognosis |journal=Br Heart J |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=840-52 |year=1975 |month=August |pmid=1191445 |pmc=482884 |doi= |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=482884&pageindex=1#page}}</ref>
Asplenia is associated with cardiac abnormalities:<ref name=pmid1191445>{{cite journal |author=Rose V, Izukawa T, Moes CA |title=Syndromes of asplenia and polysplenia. A review of cardiac and non-cardiac malformations in 60 cases withspecial reference to diagnosis and prognosis |journal=Br Heart J |volume=37 |issue=8 |pages=840-52 |year=1975 |month=August |pmid=1191445 |pmc=482884 |doi= |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=482884&pageindex=1#page}}</ref>
*Aspenia = '''B'''oys, '''B'''ad congenital malformations (transposition of great vessels, pulmonary atresia/stenosis, totally anomalous pulmonary return).
*Aspenia = '''B'''oys, '''B'''ad congenital malformations ([[transposition of the great vessels]], pulmonary atresia/stenosis, [[total anomalous pulmonary venous return]]).
**Interesting is that these are all right-to-left shunts.
**Interesting is that these are all right-to-left shunts.


Line 143: Line 208:
*Polyspenia = '''G'''irls, '''G'''ood prognosis, '''G'''astrointestinal situs inversus.
*Polyspenia = '''G'''irls, '''G'''ood prognosis, '''G'''astrointestinal situs inversus.


==Cor pulmonale==
Heart disease due to pulmonary disease.


==Eisenmenger syndrome==
Causes - incomplete list:<ref>URL: [http://medsources.blogspot.ca/2011/09/cor-pulmonale.html http://medsources.blogspot.ca/2011/09/cor-pulmonale.html]. Accessed on: 2 May 2012.</ref>
===General===
*[[Primary pulmonary hypertension]].
Definition:<ref name=pmid19416617>{{cite journal |author=Jensen AS, Iversen K, Vejlstrup NG, Hansen PB, Sondergaard L |title=[Eisenmenger syndrome] |language=Danish |journal=Ugeskr. Laeg. |volume=171 |issue=15 |pages=1270-5 |year=2009 |month=April |pmid=19416617 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*Chronic thromboembolic disease.
*[[Pulmonary arterial hypertension]] with a
*[[Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]].
*Right-to-left shunt (that was initially left-to-right), and
*[[Interstitial lung disease]].
*Cyanosis.
**[[Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis]].
 
*[[Cystic fibrosis]].
====Causes====
*ASD - rarely causes Eisenmenger syndrome.
*VSD.
*Extra-cardiac shunt.
 
Note: Eisenmenger syndrome, by definition in some sources, is (only) due to a VSD.
 
===Microscopic===
End-stage disease:<ref name=pmid12140128>{{cite journal |author=Daliento L, Rebellato L, Angelini A, ''et al.'' |title=Fatal outcome in Eisenmenger syndrome |journal=Cardiovasc. Pathol. |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=221-8 |year=2002 |pmid=12140128 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
*Often characterized by fibrinoid [[necrosis]] of small pulmonary arterial vessels (arterioles & small arteries).
 
==Cor pulmonale==
Pulmonary hypertension due to heart disease.


===Pulmonary hypertension===
==Pulmonary hypertension==
{{Main|Pulmonary hypertension}}
{{Main|Pulmonary hypertension}}
*May cause ''[[cor pulmonale]]''.


Pressure - definition:<ref name=pmid19416617/>
Pressure - definition:<ref name=pmid19416617/>
*Mean pulm. arterial pressure >25 mmHg at rest.
*Mean pulmonary arterial pressure >25 mmHg at rest.


==See also==
=See also=
*[[Cardiovascular pathology]].
*[[Cardiovascular pathology]].
*[[Heart]].
*[[Heart]].
*[[Pulmonary hypertension]].
*[[Pulmonary hypertension]].


==References==
=References=
{{reflist|2}}
{{reflist|2}}


[[Category:Cardiovascular pathology]]
[[Category:Cardiovascular pathology]]

Latest revision as of 19:31, 8 January 2013

Congenital heart disease, abbreviated CHD, is a niche area of cardiac pathology, which is a subset of cardiovascular pathology.

Paediatric cardiac surgery

Norwood procedure

Indication:

  • LHHS - following birth.

Details:

  • Pulmonary artery is attached to the aorta.
  • The lungs are perfused by a Blalock-Taussig shunt (subclavian artery -> pulmonary artery) or a Sano shunt (single ventricle -> synthetic conduit -> pulmonary artery).

Images:

Hybrid procedure
  • Is an alternative to the Norwood procedure.
  • It is call hybrid procedure as it is a mix of a surgery and a minimally invasive interventional procedure.[1]

Key elements:[2]

  1. Stent the ductus arteriosus (interventional cardiology/interventional radiology).
  2. Band the pulmonary artery - to reduce the pulmonary pressure (cardiac surgery).

Notes:

  • It appears to be associated with more GI complications.[3]

Bidirectional Glenn Shunt

  • AKA bidirectional cavopulmonary shunt (BCPS), AKA hemi-Fontan procedure, AKA bidirectional cavopulmonary anastomosis (BDCPA).[4]

Indication:

  • LHHS - following Norwood procedure, reduce work done by the heart; usu. done at age 4 to 6 months.

Details:

  • The superior vena cava (SVC) is hooked-up to the right pulmonary artery.[5]
  • The conduit connecting the ventricle and lungs (Blalock-Taussig shunt or Sano shunt) is disconnected.

Image:

Fontan procedure

  • De-oxygenated blood bypasses the heart en route to the lungs.
  • Usually done at age 2-4 years.[4]

There is the original Fontan procedure and two variants:

  • Atriopulmonary connection (the original) - right atrial appendage connected to (proximal) right pulmonary artery.[6]
  • Intracardiac total cavopulmonary connection (lateral tunnel).
  • Extracardiac total cavopulmonary connection.

Image:

Notes:

  • Fontan procedure cannot be done in a newborn as the pulmonary vascular bed resistance is too high.[6]

Shunts - overview

Most shunts are a consequence of congenital heart disease. They can be grouped into left-to-right and right-to-left.

Left-to-right

Mnemonic the Ds:[7]

  • ASD = atrial septal defect.
  • VSD = ventricular septal defect.
  • AVSD = atrioventricular defect.
  • PDA = patent ductus arteriosus.

Note: The word Left has four letters and there are four L->R shunts.

Right-to-left

Mnemonic 5 Ts:[8]

  • Tetralogy of Fallot (TOF).
  • Transposition of great arteries.
  • Truncus arteriosus.
  • Tricuspid valve atresia.
  • Total anomalous pulmonary venous return.

Clinical:

  • These babies are blue, as the blood partially bypasses the lung and/or oxygenated blood is mixed with de-oxygenated blood.
  • TOF is the classic cause of "blue babies".

Left-to-right

Ventricular septal defect

  • Abbreviated VSD.

General

  • Common serious congenital heart defect.
    • Most common congenital defect = bicuspid aortic valve.[9]
  • Often associated with other cardiac abnormalities, e.g. Tetralogy of Fallot.
    • 20-30% of VSDs are isolated.[10]

Subtypes:

  1. Membranous VSD ~ 90%.
    • Near aortic valve.
  2. Muscular VSD ~ 10%.

Clinical:

  • Significance dependent on:
    • Size - large ones require an intervention, e.g. surgery.
    • Concurrent/associated pathology.

Atrial septal defect

  • Abbreviated ASD.

General

  • May be seen in adults.
  • Classically a left-to-right shunt.
    • Leads to RV dilation.[11]

Clinical:

  • Fixed S2 split.

Classification

Types:[12]

  1. Ostium secundum
    • Between SVC and IVC.
  2. Ostium primum
    • Between SVC and IVC. Closer to RV.
  3. Sinus venosus.
    • May be subdivided into:
      • Upper sinus venosus defect - at SVC.
      • Lower sinus venosus defect - at IVC.

Notes:

  • The ostium secundum are the most common and usually found in isolation, i.e. there are not other associated abnormalities.

Eisenmenger syndrome

General

Definition - all of the following:[13]

  1. Pulmonary arterial hypertension.
  2. Right-to-left shunt (that was initially left-to-right).
  3. Cyanosis.

Causes

  • ASD - rarely causes Eisenmenger syndrome.
  • VSD.
  • Extra-cardiac shunt.

Note: Eisenmenger syndrome, by definition in some sources, is (only) due to a VSD.

Microscopic

End-stage disease:[14]

  • Often characterized by fibrinoid necrosis of small pulmonary arterial vessels (arterioles & small arteries).

Right-to-left

Tetralogy of Fallot

  • Abbreviated TOF.

General

  • Most common cause of a blue baby.

Etiology

  • Abnormal septation of the truncus arteriosus.

Definition

Features:[8]

  • Right ventricular hypertrophy.
  • Right ventricular outflow tract obstruction.
  • Overriding aorta.
  • VSD (ventricular septal defect).

Notes:

  • Overriding aorta = aorta has a biventricular connection --takes blood from the right ventricle.
  • Right ventricular outflow tract obstruction is usually subpulmonic stenosis.

Transposition of the great vessels

  • AKA transposition of the great arteries.

General

  • Aorta and pulmonary trunk hooked-up to the wrong ventricle.
    • Survivable after birth only if there is a functional shunt, e.g. (persistent) patent ductus arteriosus and/or atrial septal defect.
    • When the ductus arteriosus closes they are in trouble.

Total anomalous pulmonary venous return

  • AKA total anomalous pulmonary venous drainage (TAPVD).
  • Abbreviated TAPVR.

General

  • Pulmonary veins do not attach to left atrium.
  • Classified by where the veins attach - which is predictive of outcome.[15][16]
  • Treatment: surgical repair (Coles procedure).[17] (???)

Other

Ebstein anomaly

General

  • Often right-to-left shunt - as it is seen with an atrial septal defect (ASD).
  • Tricuspid incompetence -> right atrial enlargement.[18]
  • Weak association with maternal lithium use.[19]

Left hypoplastic heart syndrome

  • Abbreviated LHHS.

General

Defintion:[20]

  • Physiologically inadequate left ventricle.

Key characteristic:[21]

Causality:

  • Mitral stenosis.
  • Left ventricular hypoplasia.

Associations:[21]

  • Turner syndrome.
  • Noonan syndrome - sometimes called "male version of Turner syndrome".
  • Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome.
  • Holt-Oram syndrome.[22]

Splenic abnormalities

Main article: Spleen

Asplenia is associated with cardiac abnormalities:[23]

For completeness... polyspenia associations:[23]

  • Polyspenia = Girls, Good prognosis, Gastrointestinal situs inversus.

Cor pulmonale

Heart disease due to pulmonary disease.

Causes - incomplete list:[24]

Pulmonary hypertension

Main article: Pulmonary hypertension

Pressure - definition:[13]

  • Mean pulmonary arterial pressure >25 mmHg at rest.

See also

References

  1. ↑ URL: http://www.childrenshospital.org/views/august05/cardiacsurgery.html. Accessed on: 14 January 2011.
  2. ↑ URL: http://www.childrenshospital.org/views/august05/cardiacsurgery.html. Accessed on: 14 January 2011.
  3. ↑ Weiss SL, Gossett JG, Kaushal S, Wang D, Backer CL, Wald EL (December 2010). "Comparison of Gastrointestinal Morbidity After Norwood and Hybrid Palliation for Complex Heart Defects". Pediatr Cardiol. doi:10.1007/s00246-010-9864-9. PMID 21188371.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Alsoufi B, Bennetts J, Verma S, Caldarone CA (January 2007). "New developments in the treatment of hypoplastic left heart syndrome". Pediatrics 119 (1): 109–17. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1592. PMID 17200277. http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/cgi/content/full/119/1/109.
  5. ↑ GLENN WW (July 1958). "Circulatory bypass of the right side of the heart. IV. Shunt between superior vena cava and distal right pulmonary artery; report of clinical application". N. Engl. J. Med. 259 (3): 117–20. doi:10.1056/NEJM195807172590304. PMID 13566431.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Fontan F, Baudet E (May 1971). "Surgical repair of tricuspid atresia". Thorax 26 (3): 240–8. PMC 1019078. PMID 5089489. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1019078/.
  7. ↑ Cotran, Ramzi S.; Kumar, Vinay; Fausto, Nelson; Nelso Fausto; Robbins, Stanley L.; Abbas, Abul K. (2005). Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease (7th ed.). St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier Saunders. pp. 566. ISBN 0-7216-0187-1.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Cotran, Ramzi S.; Kumar, Vinay; Fausto, Nelson; Nelso Fausto; Robbins, Stanley L.; Abbas, Abul K. (2005). Robbins and Cotran pathologic basis of disease (7th ed.). St. Louis, Mo: Elsevier Saunders. pp. 568. ISBN 0-7216-0187-1.
  9. ↑ Siu SC, Silversides CK (June 2010). "Bicuspid aortic valve disease". J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 55 (25): 2789–800. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2009.12.068. PMID 20579534.
  10. ↑ Mitchell, Richard; Kumar, Vinay; Fausto, Nelson; Abbas, Abul K.; Aster, Jon (2011). Pocket Companion to Robbins & Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease (8th ed.). Elsevier Saunders. pp. 287. ISBN 978-1416054542.
  11. ↑ Nyboe, C.; Fenger-Grøn, M.; Nielsen-Kudsk, JE.; Hjortdal, V. (Aug 2012). "Closure of secundum atrial septal defects in the adult and elderly patients.". Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. doi:10.1093/ejcts/ezs405. PMID 22893692.
  12. ↑ Mitchell, Richard; Kumar, Vinay; Fausto, Nelson; Abbas, Abul K.; Aster, Jon (2011). Pocket Companion to Robbins & Cotran Pathologic Basis of Disease (8th ed.). Elsevier Saunders. pp. 287. ISBN 978-1416054542.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Jensen AS, Iversen K, Vejlstrup NG, Hansen PB, Sondergaard L (April 2009). "[Eisenmenger syndrome]" (in Danish). Ugeskr. Laeg. 171 (15): 1270-5. PMID 19416617.
  14. ↑ Daliento L, Rebellato L, Angelini A, et al. (2002). "Fatal outcome in Eisenmenger syndrome". Cardiovasc. Pathol. 11 (4): 221-8. PMID 12140128.
  15. ↑ URL: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/899491-overview. Accessed on: 10 March 2011.
  16. ↑ Karamlou T, Gurofsky R, Al Sukhni E, et al. (March 2007). "Factors associated with mortality and reoperation in 377 children with total anomalous pulmonary venous connection". Circulation 115 (12): 1591–8. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.635441. PMID 17353446.
  17. ↑ URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2807798/. Accessed on: 15 March 2011.
  18. ↑ URL: http://www.chop.edu/service/cardiac-center/heart-conditions/ebsteins-anomaly.html. Accessed on: 27 November 2011.
  19. ↑ Giles, JJ.; Bannigan, JG. (2006). "Teratogenic and developmental effects of lithium.". Curr Pharm Des 12 (12): 1531-41. PMID 16611133.
  20. ↑ Moore. TDH. P.361
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/890196-overview
  22. ↑ Ekure EN, Okoromah CN, Briggs E, Ajenifuja OA (September 2004). "Holt-Oram syndrome with hypoplastic left heart syndrome in an African child". Niger Postgrad Med J 11 (3): 190–2. PMID 15505648.
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Rose V, Izukawa T, Moes CA (August 1975). "Syndromes of asplenia and polysplenia. A review of cardiac and non-cardiac malformations in 60 cases withspecial reference to diagnosis and prognosis". Br Heart J 37 (8): 840-52. PMC 482884. PMID 1191445. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/pagerender.fcgi?artid=482884&pageindex=1#page.
  24. ↑ URL: http://medsources.blogspot.ca/2011/09/cor-pulmonale.html. Accessed on: 2 May 2012.
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